Ashoka or Asoka (?-232 bc), third king of the Maurya dynasty, who ruled almost the whole of the Indian subcontinent from about 269 to 232 bc (see Mauryan Empire). Ashoka stands unique among emperors in world history: After successfully concluding a major military campaign, he was so disturbed by the suffering that it had caused that he forsook war and thereafter endorsed nonviolence and peaceful persuasion in consolidating his vast empire.The major source of documentation for Ashoka’s reign is the succession of edicts that he issued to his subjects in every part of his empire. These edicts were inscribed on rock surfaces and on specially polished columns with handsomely sculpted capitals. They were written in Prakrit languages (a group of ancient Indian dialects) for the Indian population, and in Greek and Aramaic for the Hellenistic Greeks and Iranians in the northwestern part of the empire (see Indian Languages; Greek Language; Aramaic Language). Historians have established the extent of Ashoka’s empire through the location of these edicts, as well as by archaeological excavations of artifacts, monuments, and urban sites associated with the Mauryas. In one of his edicts, Ashoka named as his contemporaries five Hellenistic kings, some of whom he had diplomatic contacts with, and this has provided a chronological cross-reference for his reign.
Buddhist texts composed by monks in Sri Lanka and northwestern India color the narrative of Ashoka’s life and depict him as concerned closely with the spread of Buddhism, which was then a relatively new religion. One of these narratives associates him with astutely handling a rebellion against oppression by local officers in the city of Takshasila, in Gandhara, an ancient region in northwestern India. Ashoka’s administrative experience may have begun with the control of Gandhara. Another source describes him in a similar capacity in central India, governing from the city of Ujjain.
ASHOKA’S EMPIRE
Ashoka’s grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya (321?–298?), had established a large kingdom in northern India. This kingdom was further expanded by Ashoka’s father, Bindusara (298?-273?). As a younger son, Ashoka had to fight his elder brothers to reach the throne, possibly with the help of some ministers in Pātaliputra (modern Patna), the capital of the Mauryan Empire. This may have resulted in an interregnum of four years between his father’s death and Ashoka’s formal acceptance as emperor. On becoming king in about 269, Ashoka inherited a vast empire stretching from the Kashmīr region in the north to modern Karnātaka state in the south, and from the Ganges delta in the east to southern and eastern Afghanistan in the northwest.
Historians previously thought that a highly centralized bureaucracy functioning from Pātaliputra uniformly controlled all parts of the empire. They now suggest that the degree of control may have been different in different areas. It is likely that the central government directly administered the region around the capital, which had long been ruled by the Mauryas and their predecessors as the ancient kingdom of Magadha. Close communication would likewise have been maintained with the empire’s major cities, such as Takshasila, Ujjain, Vidisha, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. Peripheral areas may have been more loosely controlled.
After eight years as king, Ashoka conquered Kalinga (in modern Orissa state). He did this in order to control a part of the subcontinent that was rich in ores and agrarian revenue, as well as to secure the sea route along the eastern coast to the Krishna valley, where major goldfields and veins of semiprecious stones were located. Ashoka’s remorse at the suffering caused by this campaign led him to reject violent conquest as a means to any end. His interest in Buddhism, which had begun earlier, gradually increased.
Historians previously thought that a highly centralized bureaucracy functioning from Pātaliputra uniformly controlled all parts of the empire. They now suggest that the degree of control may have been different in different areas. It is likely that the central government directly administered the region around the capital, which had long been ruled by the Mauryas and their predecessors as the ancient kingdom of Magadha. Close communication would likewise have been maintained with the empire’s major cities, such as Takshasila, Ujjain, Vidisha, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. Peripheral areas may have been more loosely controlled.
After eight years as king, Ashoka conquered Kalinga (in modern Orissa state). He did this in order to control a part of the subcontinent that was rich in ores and agrarian revenue, as well as to secure the sea route along the eastern coast to the Krishna valley, where major goldfields and veins of semiprecious stones were located. Ashoka’s remorse at the suffering caused by this campaign led him to reject violent conquest as a means to any end. His interest in Buddhism, which had begun earlier, gradually increased.
ASHOKA’S EDICTS
Ashoka began to issue his edicts after the 12th year of his reign. In them, he expressed his policies, concerns, and administrative changes, as well as his aspirations of instituting a new social ethic.
Ashoka’s edicts fall into various categories. A small number relate to the activities of the Buddhist sangha, or order, and of these some are addressed to local officers and some to monks. Those known as the Minor Edicts describe Ashoka’s general involvement with Buddhism, among other matters. The Greek and Aramaic versions of these edicts are useful in shedding fresh light on the meaning of certain words in Prakrit. For example, it has been debated whether Ashoka’s use of the word dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit, a term incorporating a number of interrelated precepts such as piety and virtue) refers specifically to the Buddha’s teaching or to a wider understanding of social ethics, as is suggested by the term eusebeia in the Greek version.
The Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts are more extensive and more detailed. They reveal Ashoka’s definition of social ethics, which emphasized tolerance for diverse ideologies; respect for all religious teachers; and harmonious relationships between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees. The Pillar Edicts, which Ashoka issued in the 27th and 28th years of his reign, were a review of his activities and a testament to his policies. They show that he promoted the welfare of his subjects by building an extensive network of roads lined with shade trees and provided with wells and rest houses at regular intervals. This road system facilitated both trade and administration in the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also established hospitals and planted medicinal herbs. With the aim of improving conditions for his subjects, he appointed special officers, the mahamairas, to attend to their various problems, and he gave additional powers to rural and judicial administrators.
Ashoka’s edicts fall into various categories. A small number relate to the activities of the Buddhist sangha, or order, and of these some are addressed to local officers and some to monks. Those known as the Minor Edicts describe Ashoka’s general involvement with Buddhism, among other matters. The Greek and Aramaic versions of these edicts are useful in shedding fresh light on the meaning of certain words in Prakrit. For example, it has been debated whether Ashoka’s use of the word dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit, a term incorporating a number of interrelated precepts such as piety and virtue) refers specifically to the Buddha’s teaching or to a wider understanding of social ethics, as is suggested by the term eusebeia in the Greek version.
The Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts are more extensive and more detailed. They reveal Ashoka’s definition of social ethics, which emphasized tolerance for diverse ideologies; respect for all religious teachers; and harmonious relationships between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees. The Pillar Edicts, which Ashoka issued in the 27th and 28th years of his reign, were a review of his activities and a testament to his policies. They show that he promoted the welfare of his subjects by building an extensive network of roads lined with shade trees and provided with wells and rest houses at regular intervals. This road system facilitated both trade and administration in the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also established hospitals and planted medicinal herbs. With the aim of improving conditions for his subjects, he appointed special officers, the mahamairas, to attend to their various problems, and he gave additional powers to rural and judicial administrators.
Whereas Ashoka is largely ignored in Hindu sources, in Buddhist texts he is presented as a pious Buddhist king whose principal concern was the well-being of the sangha. Among the legends of his later years are stories about the evil acts of his young queen. However, these stories contain considerable exaggeration and were meant to be read not only as historical accounts but also as morality tales. Ashoka’s legendary fame in Buddhist societies arises from his later association with the concept of the chakraqvartin, or the righteous ruler in whose reign the wheel of law, the symbol representing the fundamental teachings of Buddhism, rolls across the kingdom ensuring the welfare of all.
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